Section 4.1 — Simple linear regression

Contents

Section 4.1 — Simple linear regression#

This notebook contains the code examples from Section 4.1 Simple linear regression from the No Bullshit Guide to Statistics.

Notebook setup#

# load Python modules
import os
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import seaborn as sns
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# Figures setup
plt.clf()  # needed otherwise `sns.set_theme` doesn"t work
from plot_helpers import RCPARAMS
RCPARAMS.update({"figure.figsize": (5, 3)})   # good for screen
# RCPARAMS.update({"figure.figsize": (5, 1.6)})  # good for print
sns.set_theme(
    context="paper",
    style="whitegrid",
    palette="colorblind",
    rc=RCPARAMS,
)

# High-resolution please
%config InlineBackend.figure_format = "retina"

# Where to store figures
DESTDIR = "figures/lm/simple"
<Figure size 640x480 with 0 Axes>
from ministats.plots.figures import plot_residuals
from ministats.plots.figures import plot_residuals2
# set random seed for repeatability
np.random.seed(42)
import warnings
# silence kurtosistest warning when using n < 20
warnings.filterwarnings("ignore", category=UserWarning)

\(\def\stderr#1{\mathbf{se}_{#1}}\) \(\def\stderrhat#1{\hat{\mathbf{se}}_{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\Mean}{\textbf{Mean}}\) \(\newcommand{\Var}{\textbf{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\Std}{\textbf{Std}}\) \(\newcommand{\Freq}{\textbf{Freq}}\) \(\newcommand{\RelFreq}{\textbf{RelFreq}}\) \(\newcommand{\DMeans}{\textbf{DMeans}}\) \(\newcommand{\Prop}{\textbf{Prop}}\) \(\newcommand{\DProps}{\textbf{DProps}}\)

\[ \newcommand{\CI}[1]{\textbf{CI}_{#1}} \newcommand{\CIL}[1]{\textbf{L}_{#1}} \newcommand{\CIU}[1]{\textbf{U}_{#1}} \newcommand{\ci}[1]{\textbf{ci}_{#1}} \newcommand{\cil}[1]{\textbf{l}_{#1}} \newcommand{\ciu}[1]{\textbf{u}_{#1}} \]

(this cell contains the macro definitions like \(\stderr{\overline{\mathbf{x}}}\), \(\stderrhat{}\), \(\Mean\), …)

Definitions#

Linear model#

The regression line describes the expected value of the outcome variable Y at different values of x

Example: students score as a function of effort#

students = pd.read_csv("../datasets/students.csv")
students.head()
student_ID background curriculum effort score
0 1 arts debate 10.96 75.0
1 2 science lecture 8.69 75.0
2 3 arts debate 8.60 67.0
3 4 arts lecture 7.92 70.3
4 5 science debate 9.90 76.1
efforts = students["effort"]
scores = students["score"]
sns.scatterplot(x=efforts, y=scores);
../_images/bae1d59e5ad125d9e29cd2c9ff560435b5ca4b5e0f868df6d4df40e704c1708b.png

Compute the correlation#

np.corrcoef(efforts, scores)[0,1]
# ALT. students[["effort","score"]].corr()
# np.corrcoef
0.8794375135614695

Parameter estimation using least squares#

meaneffort = efforts.mean()
meanscore = scores.mean()
num = np.sum( (efforts-meaneffort)*(scores-meanscore) )
denom = np.sum( (efforts - meaneffort)**2 )
b1 = num / denom
b1
4.504850344209071
b0 = meanscore - b1*meaneffort
b0
32.46580930159963
es = np.linspace(5, 12)
scorehats = b0 + b1*es
sns.lineplot(x=es, y=scorehats)
sns.scatterplot(x=efforts, y=scores);
../_images/42ccf797633aa725728c58b012fa973b5e878c7928bf4b7450c7cf3a2eeab8b6.png
# # ALT.
# sns.regplot(x=efforts, y=scores, ci=None);

Least squares optimization for the parameters#

How do we find the parameter estimates of the model?

plot_residuals(efforts, scores, b0, b1)
sns.scatterplot(x=efforts, y=scores)
es = np.linspace(5, 12.2)
scorehats = b0 + b1*es
sns.lineplot(x=es, y=scorehats, color="C4");
../_images/0e287987608bdfcc1ef57b187f4de2675e6015e8cb91ed77e658e258cb89603b.png
ax = sns.scatterplot(x=efforts, y=scores, zorder=4)
es = np.linspace(5, 12.2)
scorehats = b0 + b1*es
sns.lineplot(x=es, y=scorehats, color="C4", zorder=5)
plot_residuals2(efforts, scores, b0, b1, ax=ax);
../_images/12cd08a1066539faed42dbdbd3d9ff21139cd2d672885e3785331d16570cdb40.png

Estimating the standard deviation parameter#

scorehats = b0 + b1*efforts
residuals = scores - scorehats
residuals[0:4]
0   -6.838969
1    3.387041
2   -4.207522
3    2.155776
dtype: float64
SSR = np.sum( residuals**2 )
n = len(students)
sigmahat = np.sqrt( SSR / (n-2) )
sigmahat
4.929598282660258

Model diagnostics#

Scatter plots#

sns.scatterplot(x="effort", y="score", data=students);
../_images/bae1d59e5ad125d9e29cd2c9ff560435b5ca4b5e0f868df6d4df40e704c1708b.png

Examples of nonlinear patterns#

Examples of scatter plots showing nonlinear patterns.

Residuals plots#

scorehats = b0 + b1*efforts
residuals = scores - scorehats

Residuals versus the predicted values#

ax = sns.scatterplot(x=scorehats, y=residuals)
ax.set_xlabel("model predictions ($\\hat{s}_i$)")
ax.set_ylabel("residuals ($r_i = s_i - \\hat{s}_i$)")
ax.axhline(y=0, color="b", linestyle="dotted");
../_images/39997ccb1bfaf5f01a972a07a95055b8ab3cfa0376ea2391aad9b7ca8598fbcd.png

Residuals versus the predictor (bonus)#

# ax = sns.scatterplot(x=efforts, y=residuals)
# ax.set_xticks(range(5,12+1))
# ax.set_ylabel("residuals ($r_i = s_i - \\hat{s}_i$)")
# ax.axhline(y=0, color="b", linestyle="dotted");

QQ-plot of the residuals#

from statsmodels.graphics.api import qqplot

qqplot(residuals, line="s");
../_images/7298989ca0b7083d069844a6e5c90e9041b5fbdc7760a1fd98962fd7f7e589ac.png

Residual plots that show violated assumptions#

Examples of residual plots showing violated modeling assumptions.

Sum of squares quantities#

Sum of squared residuals#

SSR = np.sum( residuals**2 )
SSR
315.9122099692906

Explained sum of squares#

meanscore = scores.mean()
ESS = np.sum( (scorehats-meanscore)**2 ) 
ESS
1078.2917900307098

Total sum of squares#

TSS = np.sum( (scores - meanscore)**2 )
TSS
1394.2040000000002
SSR + ESS  # == TSS
1394.2040000000004

Coefficient of determination \(R^2\)#

R2 = ESS / TSS
R2
0.7734103402591799

Using linear models to make predictions#

def predict(x, b0, b1):
    yhat = b0 + b1*x
    return yhat

Confidence interval for the mean#

TODO: add formulas

Confidence interval for observations#

TODO: add formulas

Example:predicting students’ scores#

Predict the score of a new student who invests 9 hours of effort per week.

neweffort = 9
scorehat = predict(neweffort, b0=32.5, b1=4.5)
scorehat
73.0

Confidence interval for the mean score#

#######################################################
newdev = (neweffort - efforts.mean())**2
sum_dev2 = np.sum((efforts - efforts.mean())**2)
se_meanscore = sigmahat*np.sqrt(1/n + newdev/sum_dev2)
se_meanscore
1.2744485881877106
from scipy.stats import t as tdist
alpha = 0.1
t_l, t_u = tdist(df=n-2).ppf([alpha/2, 1-alpha/2])
[scorehat + t_l*se_meanscore, scorehat + t_u*se_meanscore]
[70.74303643371016, 75.25696356628984]

Prediction band for the mean score#

Plot of the 90 confidence interval for the mean

Confidence interval for predicted scores#

se_score = sigmahat*np.sqrt(1 + 1/n + newdev/sum_dev2)
se_score
5.0916754052414435
alpha = 0.1
t_l, t_u = tdist(df=n-2).ppf([alpha/2, 1-alpha/2])
[scorehat + t_l*se_score, scorehat + t_u*se_score]
[63.98298198333331, 82.0170180166667]

Prediction band for scores#

Plot of the 90 confidence interval for the outcomes.

Prediction caveats#

efforts.min(), efforts.max()
(5.21, 12.0)

It’s not OK to extrapolate the validity of the model outside of the range of values where we have observed data.

For example, there is no reason to believe in the model’s predictions about an effort of 20 hours per week:

predict(20, b0=32.5, b1=4.5)
122.5

Indeed, the model predicts the grade will be above 100% which is impossible.

Explanations#

Software for fitting linear models#

  • scipy

  • statsmodels

  • scikit-learn

Fitting linear models with statsmodels#

import statsmodels.formula.api as smf

lm1 = smf.ols("score ~ 1 + effort", data=students).fit()
type(lm1)
statsmodels.regression.linear_model.RegressionResultsWrapper

Estimated parameters for the model#

lm1.params
Intercept    32.465809
effort        4.504850
dtype: float64
type(lm1.params)
pandas.core.series.Series

We often want to extract the intercept and slope parameters for use in subsequent calculations.

b0 = lm1.params["Intercept"]  # = lm1.params[0]
b1 = lm1.params["effort"]     # = lm1.params[1]
b0, b1
(32.465809301599606, 4.504850344209074)

The estimate \(\widehat{\sigma}\) is obtained by taking the square root of the .scale attribute.

sigmahat = np.sqrt(lm1.scale)
sigmahat
4.929598282660258

Model fitted values#

lm1.fittedvalues  # == scorehats
0     81.838969
1     71.612959
2     71.207522
3     68.144224
4     77.063828
5     81.118193
6     67.648690
7     73.595093
8     55.936080
9     67.198205
10    76.703440
11    84.406734
12    64.450247
13    61.251803
14    86.524013
dtype: float64

Residuals#

lm1.resid  # == scores - scorehats
0     -6.838969
1      3.387041
2     -4.207522
3      2.155776
4     -0.963828
5     -1.318193
6      5.051310
7      1.804907
8      1.063920
9      1.801795
10    -6.303440
11    11.793266
12    -1.550247
13    -3.651803
14    -2.224013
dtype: float64

Sum-of-squared quantities#

# SSR     # ESS     # TSS              # R2
lm1.ssr,  lm1.ess,  lm1.centered_tss,  lm1.rsquared
(315.91220996929053,
 1078.2917900307098,
 1394.2040000000002,
 0.7734103402591798)

Predictions#

Predict the score of a new student who invests 9 hours of effort per week.

lm1.predict({"effort":9})
0    73.009462
dtype: float64
pred = lm1.get_prediction({"effort":9})
pred.se_mean, pred.conf_int(alpha=0.1)
(array([1.27444859]), array([[70.75249883, 75.26642597]]))
pred.se_obs, pred.conf_int(obs=True, alpha=0.1)
(array([5.09167541]), array([[63.99244438, 82.02648042]]))

Model summary table#

lm1.summary()
OLS Regression Results
Dep. Variable: score R-squared: 0.773
Model: OLS Adj. R-squared: 0.756
Method: Least Squares F-statistic: 44.37
Date: Fri, 18 Oct 2024 Prob (F-statistic): 1.56e-05
Time: 20:55:48 Log-Likelihood: -44.140
No. Observations: 15 AIC: 92.28
Df Residuals: 13 BIC: 93.70
Df Model: 1
Covariance Type: nonrobust
coef std err t P>|t| [0.025 0.975]
Intercept 32.4658 6.155 5.275 0.000 19.169 45.763
effort 4.5049 0.676 6.661 0.000 3.044 5.966
Omnibus: 4.062 Durbin-Watson: 2.667
Prob(Omnibus): 0.131 Jarque-Bera (JB): 1.777
Skew: 0.772 Prob(JB): 0.411
Kurtosis: 3.677 Cond. No. 44.5


Notes:
[1] Standard Errors assume that the covariance matrix of the errors is correctly specified.

Helper functions for plotting linear model results#

  • plot_reg(lm): generate a regression plot for the model lm

  • plot_redid(lm): residuals plot for the model lm

  • plot_pred_bands(lm, ...): plot confidence intervals model lm. Use ci_mean=True to plot the predictions for the mean, or ci_obs=True to plot the predictions of the observations variable.

Regression plot#

from ministats import plot_reg

plot_reg(lm1);
../_images/0ef2937a1c0a0ff3c4d41b9dc61944dfeb79c91154a3ceb9e3af6c68d3fc8619.png

Residuals plot#

xs = np.array([1,2,3])
hasattr(xs, "name")
False
xs = pd.Series([1,2,3])
hasattr(xs, "name") and xs.name is not None
False
from ministats import plot_resid

plot_resid(lm1);
../_images/b130f84fdd24665b2dbdce78ae37decb56eb64372726e16c631725d0c0d1a414.png
# BONUS plot residuals against predictor variable
plot_resid(lm1, pred="effort");
../_images/93cb3e24b261be88dcf32f177fcd7718633aa1cf9b84c71dd0ba07d8113df5c0.png

Prediction band plots#

from ministats import plot_pred_bands

plot_reg(lm1)
plot_pred_bands(lm1, ci_mean=True, alpha_mean=0.1);
../_images/625efeaf71683710777513267bde0d3fc3909d65cea1a32f1545d6063ad89aa5.png
plot_reg(lm1)
plot_pred_bands(lm1, ci_obs=True, alpha_obs=0.1);
../_images/c94ad461a41691042c9f8f8e3e56cfad2fc78695474d22bf7e6107f3f4249881.png

Seaborn functions for plotting linear models#

Regression plot#

sns.regplot(x="effort", y="score", ci=None, data=students);
../_images/1a177f373c203b22513c994df1d085586a0ee5177635786409ec4deaa952aae6.png

Residual plot#

sns.residplot(x="effort", y="score", data=students);
../_images/f27dad1c0246695389353a9212264326b2a0e27429e13d4c60cd507a62874ddb.png

Pearson correlation coefficient revisited#

Alternative methods for fitting linear models (optional)#

Numerical optimization#

from scipy.optimize import minimize

def ssr(betas, xdata, ydata):
    yhat = betas[0] + betas[1]*xdata
    resid = ydata - yhat
    return np.sum(resid**2)

optres = minimize(ssr, x0=[0,0], args=(efforts,scores))
beta0, beta1 = optres.x
beta0, beta1
(32.46580861926548, 4.504850415190829)

Linear algebra#

linear algebra solution using numpy

import numpy as np

# Prepare the design matrix
n = len(students)
X = np.ndarray((n,2))
X[:,0] = 1
X[:,1] = efforts
X
array([[ 1.  , 10.96],
       [ 1.  ,  8.69],
       [ 1.  ,  8.6 ],
       [ 1.  ,  7.92],
       [ 1.  ,  9.9 ],
       [ 1.  , 10.8 ],
       [ 1.  ,  7.81],
       [ 1.  ,  9.13],
       [ 1.  ,  5.21],
       [ 1.  ,  7.71],
       [ 1.  ,  9.82],
       [ 1.  , 11.53],
       [ 1.  ,  7.1 ],
       [ 1.  ,  6.39],
       [ 1.  , 12.  ]])

We obtain the least squares solution using the Moore–Penrose inverse formula:

\[ \vec{\beta} = (X^{\sf T} X)^{-1}X^{\sf T}\; \mathbf{y} \]
lares = np.linalg.inv(X.T.dot(X)).dot(X.T).dot(scores)
beta0, beta1 = lares
beta0, beta1
(32.46580930159923, 4.504850344209087)

Fitting linear models using scipy#

The helper function scipy.stats.linregress

from scipy.stats import linregress

scipyres = linregress(efforts, scores)
scipyres.intercept, scipyres.slope
(32.46580930159963, 4.504850344209071)

Fitting linear models using scikit-learn#

The class sklearn.linear_model.LinearRegression

from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression

sklmodel = LinearRegression()
sklmodel.fit(efforts.values[:,np.newaxis], scores)
sklmodel.intercept_, sklmodel.coef_
(32.46580930159961, array([4.50485034]))

Using the low-level statsmodels API#

import statsmodels.api as sm

X = sm.add_constant(efforts)
y = scores
smres = sm.OLS(y,X).fit()
smres.params["const"], smres.params["effort"]
(32.465809301599606, 4.504850344209074)

Discussion#

Examples of non-linear relationships#

Hare are some examples of the different possible relationships between the effort and score variables.

nonlinear relantionships

Exercises#

Exercise E??: marketing dataset#

marketing = pd.read_csv("../datasets/exercises/marketing.csv")
print(marketing.columns)
lm_mkt = smf.ols("sales ~ 1 + youtube", data=marketing).fit()
plot_reg(lm_mkt)
Index(['youtube', 'facebook', 'newspaper', 'sales'], dtype='object')
<Axes: xlabel='youtube', ylabel='sales'>
../_images/35cd507af2570e8d5f818c7ad017702ecf75b2fdf81c6e56de3cc84f58695ad1.png
from ministats import plot_resid
plot_resid(lm_mkt)
<Axes: xlabel='fitted values', ylabel='residuals $r_i$'>
../_images/77aa181d9e50b2c45bf45a00246c45a6a6594916ca88a53ad588e6e4be6586cc.png